Advanced World History—Semester A

Sample Lesson - Introduction

Lesson 2.11: The Age of Iron: New Weapons and Transportation

If we'd just arm one other with pillows, life would be so much simpler.
(Source)

Modern warfare has spawned a number of powerful protest songs, but perhaps none remains quite the perfect blend of "telling-it-like-it-is" commentary and "with-it" pop sensibilities as Edwin Satt's 1969 classic party jam. The arrangement, driven by a heavy funk bass line and punctuated by a horn section, is certainly dated by today's standards, but the lyrics still pretty much reflect what most people feel anytime the discussion of war crops up.

Indeed, the world has seen very few truly peaceful periods since the Bronze Age. At any given time in the world, some people, somewhere, have been fighting battles large and small, creating a virtual non-stop state of warfare for humanity in general.

Of course, the technology and battle strategies have changed over time. Just 150 years ago, wars were fought in much more traditional fashions, with no drones, no bombers, no tear gas, and other modern weaponry. But the same basic causes have not changed, and they've driven people to enact violence on one another since the beginning.

One of the basic motivations behind armed conflict is competition for resources. As our studies in human prehistory and early history have demonstrated, the complexity of the society had little to do with whether or not conflict occurred. After all, early hunter-gatherers as well as pastoralists engaged in skirmishes over food, water and territory.

But as early societies became increasingly complex, so did warfare. Those with greater access to resources could create more surplus, thus supporting a growing population and expanding their own territory, largely through conquest. It was a vicious cycle: the more resources a society had, the more land and power it could gain, and the more land and power it would gain, the more resources it could grab a hold of. The rise of the state, then, in many ways coincided with the rise in warfare.

As historians, we're not really supposed to judge war's merits. Instead, we do try to figure out why any particular war happened when it did. We're also interested in the how, because that particular information helps us determine a lot about the way people lived.

During the Bronze Age, war reached an unprecedented level of organization, largely due to new technological advances. Bronze, wheels, and horses allowed humans to establish highly organized states, but at the same time, it enabled them to be much more brutal with each other. When one society showed themselves bigger and badder on the battlefield, other societies had to try to outdo them.

Sample Lesson - Reading

Reading 2.2.11a: A Horse, Of Course

If we were studying the Bronze Age a hundred years ago, we might have heard about something called the Aryan Invasion Theory. This was basically the idea that Indo-Europeans (as they're now commonly called) swooped down into India and basically took over. Modern scholars disregard this idea, instead suggesting that Indo-Europeans came in waves of migration that were by and large more peaceful than the word "invasion" implies.

Nevertheless, Indo-Europeans perfected Bronze Age weaponry perhaps more so than any group we've so far studied. If you'll recall from our lesson on the Mesopotamians, they're the ones sometimes credited with the invention of the wheel and were among the first to experiment with bronze metallurgy. Somehow, these inventions were transferred to Indo-Europeans who, despite not having the large sedentary empires we've studied, crafted superior bronze swords and the Bronze Age equivalent of the modern-day tank—the chariot. Combined with Indo-European mastery over the horse, they became a force to reckon with.

While we at Shmoop certainly don't condone violence or wish warfare for any people, anywhere, it's important to recognize and understand how and why military dominance became a thing. These inventions changed the nature of warfare and present the beginnings of competition between societies for military superiority.

Basically, as states grew and displayed the ability to dominate over their neighbors through the use of things like bronze swords and chariots, those neighbors found it necessary to at least match them in might, if not out-do them (as was usually the case).

But it wasn't necessarily the large, settled societies that came up with the best weaponry and tools. In fact, it was often the pastoralists, who required the means to follow herds of animals and to defend themselves against enemies and predators, who would develop the technology for new weaponry and transportation and disseminate this technology through their travels.

In fact, it was the pastoralists of the Eurasian steppes who were among the first to domesticate horses.

Although some might not find horses to be particularly interesting or impressive, the impact of the horse on our world has been profound.

The earliest means of land transport was likely the simple sled, whose earliest incarnation is dated from around 7,000 years ago in the snowy region of modern-day Russia. When the wheel came around, however, transportation picked up—but not as quickly as we'd like to think. As we've learned, the first wheels were likely used for pottery, before they caught on as a means of making transport easier. When that happened, right around 3500 BCE, it wasn't much later before large animals like cattle and oxen were used to pull carts, wagons, and plows.

Still, it was a bit slow to catch on. The Egyptians and Chinese began using wheeled carts at around the second millennium BCE. And of course, as we've learned, the wheel wasn't a global phenomenon—it wasn't used in early sub-Saharan Africa or in the Americas.

Horses came into the picture much later. And when they did, transportation changed dramatically.

Let's take a look at the history of the horse, to learn about its beginnings and how it came to have a special relationship with the human race. Read Archaeology's "The Story of the Horse", beginning at the intro. Click on "next" at the bottom of the page to then read the three articles, "The Taming of the Horse," "Riding into Heaven," and "War Horses." As you read, consider the following questions:

• Where does the modern-day horse originate?
• What advantage did the horse have over other animals that were domesticated in the steppe regions?
• How did horse riding come about? 
• How did horses figure into early religious beliefs?
• When did horses begin to be used in battle?
• What roles did they play?

Sample Lesson - Reading

Reading 2.2.11b: Weaponry, Expansion, and the Hittites

So when the Indo-Europeans migrated from the steppes into places like Harappa and Mesopotamia, they brought with them their horses and their superior military technology. To the extent that they assimilated into the local cultures, those societies became more war-like and able to dominate their neighbors.

As we read, the chariot was perhaps the most significant development in warfare at the time. The Mesopotamian version was really more of what we'd call a cart or wagon. It was ungainly and large, usually with four wheels, pulled by large animals—like oxen or donkey/onager hybrids. The Egyptian version was lighter, smaller, with usually two spoked wheels, and pulled by horses. We know now that up to that point in time, horses had not been used for transportation, farming, or warfare.

Once the Mesopotamians realized how far superior the Egyptian version was, however, they adapted their chariots accordingly. By about 1650 BCE, the light horse-drawn chariot had emerged throughout the Near East.

Armies would use the chariots to pull archers, who used the composite, or compound bow as their weapon. In contrast to a regular bow, the composite bow was shaped for maximum tension and range, which was about 300 to 400 yards. A chariot might allow for up to three quivers, not including quivers on the body of the archer himself, thus holding as many as 80 arrows. (Source)

We can understand why the armies of Egypt, Assyria, and other civilizations regarded the chariot with such awe.

The relationship between technology, warfare, and the growth of the state is perhaps best exemplified in the history of the Hittites, whom we first met when we discussed the civilization of Mesopotamia. If you remember, the Hittites were an Indo-European people who were trading partners with the Mesopotamians. They made their way into Syria and Asia Minor around the second millennium BCE, introducing horse-drawn war chariots and a refined method of iron metallurgy.

Anatolia was a region rich in silver and iron, and the Hittites used this to their advantage. Iron was used for weaponry as well as for agriculture. The iron plow, for example, allowed them to create a considerable agricultural surplus to sustain a growing empire.

An Empire State of Mind

Up until about 1600 BCE, the Hittites lived in small, independent communities. But around 1700 BCE, Labarnas I consolidated the communities under his rule in what's known as the "Old Kingdom," and started the expansion of his territory through a series of military campaigns in Asia Minor and Syria.
The Hittite Empire as the "New Kingdom" began under the reign of Suppiluliumas I, who defeated their enemies of the Mittani kingdom, a powerful people who ruled the region of modern-day northern Iraq through Syria and Anatolia, right around 1300 BCE.

Throughout its history as an empire, it was in constant conflict with other great civilizations, but particularly Egypt, which claimed Syria as its domain and which had been an ally of the Mitannis. After several battles with Egypt, including the famed Battle of Kadesh against Ramses II, both states—war-weary and depleted of resources—agreed to a treaty in 1259 BCE that would result in a truce of sorts through the end of the century. Eventually, though, the Hittites would succumb to the Sea Peoples, whose constant raiding laid the empire to waste.

The Hittites were known for their military prowess. Other than the horse-drawn chariot, they introduced the mounted horse as cavalry. Before 800 BCE, horses were primarily used for pulling chariots and wagons, but it was likely the Hittites who learned to use horses in battle. As we just read, the chariot then fell out of use in warfare once warriors mounted horses for battle.

Their infantry used weapons common then: swords, lances, and bows and arrows, and the Hittites used siege warfare and battering rams. But they had the advantage of iron technology, which they used to make weapons, like swords, and armor, which proved more durable than their bronze counterparts.

While they engaged in war for defensive reasons, protecting themselves from invading forces to their west and north, they also sought to expand their territory, eyeing the regions to the southeast, in Syria. These city-states were situated along important trade routes, and were wealthy centers of trade and agriculture. (Source)

Their competition was fierce: along with Egypt and Mittani, they would count Assyria and Babylonia as their enemies. Once an area was subdued, the Hittites would exact tribute from the region in the form of cattle, goods, manpower—which was used for military service and agriculture—and military intelligence. It was through their expansion that the Hittites increased their wealth and power.

As their empire increased, so did their need for strong, centralized rule. The surrounding regions represented a variety of peoples and cultures, and the Hittites controlled the regions as vassal states which owed their allegiance to their patriarch, the king. The king was not only the ruler of the land, but he was also the military leader.

Sample Lesson - Reading

Reading 2.2.11c: A Lesson Learned: The Egyptians, the Hyksos, and War Technology

So where did the Egyptians learn to create a lighter, smaller chariot that would soon be copied for use on the battlefields across the regions?

It was the actually the Hyksos who first introduced brought bronze swords, the compound bow, and chariots with them and ruled Egypt for nearly two hundred years.

The Hyksos were Asiatic migrants from Palestine who made their way into Egypt right around 1800 BCE, settling in the region of the eastern Nile Delta. They rose to power when Egyptian rule was weakened, likely by famine, and ruled Egypt as the 15th dynasty, establishing their capital at Avaris in 1720 BCE, and then taking Memphis in 1674 BCE. Local government only recovered by borrowing and adapting the same military technology and using it against the Hyksos.

Take a look at this article on the introduction of the chariot by the Hyksos to the Egyptians to learn how war technology changed the face of Egyptian culture and enabled them to expand their empire. Focus primarily on pages 1, 3 – 5, and 8, and feel free to skim through the rest, including the details of the battle of Megiddo and Kadesh. As you read, consider these questions:

• How was Egyptian weaponry inferior to that of the Hyksos?
• What weapons did the Hyksos introduce to the Egyptians?
• How were the Egyptians finally able to overthrow the Hyksos and regain control of their region? 
• How did their newfound war technology transform the way in which the pharaohs ruled? How did it change their army?

Sample Lesson - Reading

Reading 2.2.11d: The Iron Age and the Military Revolution

During the Bronze Age, war and other conflicts were generally fought with short-range weapons like spears, axes, swords, and daggers. Longer-range weapons—like the bow and arrow, which had been around at least as long as the late Stone Age—were gradually introduced in battle. Bronze was also used for armor, with bronze scales sewn onto cloth or leather. And as we learned, the chariot took warfare to a whole different level of combat.

As we've read in our studies of sub-Saharan Africa, China, and just now, the Hittites, bronze eventually gave way to iron, ringing in the Iron Age, which began in southeastern Europe right around 1200 BCE and in China at about 600 BCE. As when bronze was first introduced, iron changed agriculture as well as weaponry and warfare, altering the landscape of the world in profound and far-reaching ways. As we mentioned earlier, the iron plow, which was invented in Han China around 100 BCE, was a vast improvement from its wooden ancestor, the ard.

Iron was much more abundant and thus cheaper than copper and tin, which were used to make bronze, and its availability allowed for more people to arm themselves, not only with tools for farming, but also with weapons for warfare. It's thus argued that with the increase of access to weapons, there was a rise in armed conflicts.

Sample Lesson - Activity

Activity 2.11: Chariots of Fire—or just Bronze

The archaeological record for Bronze Age warfare is surprisingly rich. By the mid-second millennium BCE, civilization had clearly reached a point where warfare had become a big deal. The amount of effort that went into producing and refining weapons suggests that a high value was placed on military strength.

Based on the readings, what can you say about how this process came about? What happened to change warfare in the Bronze Age? How did it become such a significant part of ancient life? How did we move from fighting over resources to full-scale wars of empire expansion?

It's time for a long essay question, and here's your overarching prompt:

In what ways did warfare change in the Bronze Age? What brought about this transformation and why did it occur?

Step One

Oof, that's a pretty broad question. Let's break it down.

First, read the questions below and go back through the readings to find relevant information.

• Why did weapons technology flourish during the Bronze Age?
• What significant changes occurred right around the mid-second millennium BCE? 
• How was weapons technology passed between cultures?
• What's the relationship between warfare, state-building, and expansion? 
• How do you think patriarchy was reaffirmed with the emphasis on warfare?

Step Two

Next, figure out how you want to format your essay. Since we didn't specify what historical thinking skill to use (the AP exam will), you're welcome to use some combination of compare-and-contrast and change-over-time. Or just pick one or the other.

Of course, you'll need to find what works best for you—just remember, in an exam setting, you won't have a lot of time to figure out how to write your essay, so you'll need to think on your feet.

Step Three

Finally, just write. Remember, you're addressing this overarching question:

In what ways did warfare change in the Bronze Age? What brought about this transformation and why did it occur?

Your essay should be around 350 – 450 words.

Don't forget to include a thesis statement and use citations from the readings. On the AP Exam, you'll need to include thesis statements for all of your essays, even the free-response ones.

Need an example? Here's how we'd begin our essay:

During the Bronze Age, warfare underwent a significant transformation as civilizations developed new technologies which were often adapted from technology gleaned from other societies, particularly their competitors. The introduction of bronze weaponry and the chariot led to the creation of powerful militaries, which then allowed civilizations to increase their expansionist efforts…

Weapons technology flourished in the Bronze Age largely due to general technological innovations. The wheel, for example, made the chariot possible. Likewise, bronze metallurgy made swords stronger than ever. Put into a military setting, these technologies could be developed for purpose of material gain. As several civilizations peaked during the mid-second millennium BCE, the need, desire, and resources were available to perfect weapons…

Now it's your turn. When you're done, upload your essay below.