Decameron Allusions & Cultural References

Literary and Philosophical References

We're only giving you a small sample of the many works that left a mark on The Decameron. Shmoop doesn't want your head to explode. We need you in one piece so you can click through the rest of the guide.

Hexaemeron, St. Ambrose. Boccaccio's playing on the Greek name of St. Ambrose's series of six sermons on the Creation by concocting the name Decameron to reflect the 10 days of stories that follow.

Remedia Amoris, Ovid. Since we're talking about the Middle Ages, we know that Boccaccio isn't going to invent material on the fly. He's going to do a lot of borrowing from his literary predecessors. Scholars believe that's just what he's doing in the "Prologue" or "Introduction" to The Decameron. He's using a technique borrowed from Ovid, who got himself in trouble back in the year 2 for writing the steamy Ars Amatoria (The Art of Love). Ovid decided to backtrack a bit in a new work (Remedia Amoris or The Remedy of Love), producing an ironic retraction in which he renounces the material in his previous shameful work. Kinda. Sorta. Because what such a retraction really does is to frame the naughtiness as something moral—as a help for others who are suffering in love and want to know the proper way out of it. Boccaccio does something similar in his introduction.

Prince Galehaut, mentioned as the second name of the Decameron at the top of the "Introduction" or "Prologue." It's a reference to the friend of Lancelot in the French Lancelot-Grail Cycle who helps Lancelot hook up with Guinevere. Galehaut also gives us a reference to Dante's Inferno (V.137), when the miserable adulteress Francesca da Rimini (miserable because she happens to be in Hell) tells the story of her transgressions with Paolo Malatesta (who's right there in Hell with her). Reading about Galehaut's tale got them so hot and bothered they couldn't keep their hands off each other. Ergo, Hell.

Thucydides, History of the Peleponnesian War, is recognized as the source for the plague story in The Decameron. If you read Boccaccio's description of the decay of rule of law ("In the face of so much affliction and misery, all respect for the laws of God and man had virtually broken down and been extinguished in our city" (I.Intro.7-8)), you're seeing Thucydides' description of the plague in Athens.

Paul the Deacon, Historia gentis Langobardum, 8th century. Boccaccio grabs Paul's description of the plague and customizes it for his Introduction to the First Day.

Xenophon of Ephesus, The Ephesian Tale of Anthia and Habrocomes, 2nd century. This work might also have been in ten books. It's also the possible source of the tale of Andreuccio (II.5).

Apuleius, The Metamorphoses or The Golden Ass, 2nd century CE. Boccaccio borrowed outlines for the stories of Pietro di Vinciolo (V.10) and Peronella and the Tub (VIII.2). How do we know that this transmission was possible? Boccaccio transcribed a manuscript of The Golden Ass while he was writing The Decameron.

The Griselda Story. While scholars believe that Boccaccio sets the story of the patient Griselda (told by Dioneo on the last day) down in its known form, they also think it might have been part of a larger folktale tradition. There's this folktale classification system called the Aarne-Thompson Tale Type Index that allows us to trace patterns in folk stories from across the world and through time. A scholar named William Bettridge thinks that "Griselda" is an A-T type 887, which means it belongs to the same folktale family as the story of Cupid and Psyche. You have Shmoop's permission just to use that to impress your teachers, but if you're interested in this particular tale it's really easy to follow up on all this through the interwebz. You wonks know who you are. (BTW, please note that both Petrarch and Chaucer adapt the story of Griselda for their own purposes.)

Panchatantra, compiled about 200 BCE in India. This collection of animal fables and magic tales is gigantically influential to us in the West, even if you've never heard of it. How influential? Let's just take a look at how Boccaccio probably got his hands on it. At some point, it was translated into Arabic and then into Syriac (about 10th or 11th century CE), Greek (1080) and Castilian (1252). It was also translated into Hebrew in the 12th century CE and then into Latin. So basically, this work was on the bestseller list for fourteen centuries. Boccaccio probably borrowed the frame structure and the stitching together of different stories, or novelle. The Panchatantra also provides a folktale type for the "wife substitution" in VII.8 (Arriguccio and Sismonda).

Il Novellino (a.k.a. Il Libro di Novelle et Bel Parlar Gentile or Le Cento Novelle Antiche), Anonymous, though probably a Ghibelline of Florence. This work of 100 short stories was written in Tuscany between 1280 and 1300 and therefore had the most direct influence on Boccaccio's scheme for his Decameron. Il Novellino offers didactic or moral stories, but also has tales that show the power of wit and intellect and humor. This collection has no frame story, but the stories themselves are stylistically linked.

The Seven Sages of Rome (Il Libro dei Sette Savi) or The Seven Wise Masters. Notice the repetition of the number seven? There are numerological theories behind the insistence on this number in so many works of literature (7 days for the creation of the world, 7 virtues, 7 deadly sins, a signifier of the Holy Trinity—you get the picture). The Seven Sages is another collection of stories that comes to Europe from the East and contains around fifteen stories set in a frame narrative. Sound familiar? There's more. The Seven Sages is also a "Potiphar's Wife" type tale, in which a spurned woman falsely accuses a man and gets him into a lot of hot water, just like Boccaccio's tale of Walter, Count of Antwerp (II.8). There's also a similarity of purpose between the two works: the Prince in Seven Sages keeps death at bay through the Sages' storytelling, just as the members of the brigata are attempting to do with their storytelling vacay.

The Thousand and One Nights. This classic of children's literature has a similar overall structure and purpose: telling stories to save your life.

Convivio, Dante Alighieri. In the conclusion of Day Ten, Dioneo speaks of the "wisdom of mortals." That sentiment is adapted by Boccaccio from Convivio IV.xxvii.5.

Divina Commedia, Dante Alighieri's poetic masterpiece. There are many direct references to Dante in this work, shared historical characters and concepts used in the Commedia. There's the early reference to "Prince Galehaut" as part of the extended title of The Decameron, which comes from Dante's Inferno V.137. Boccaccio also almost undoubtedly chose his seven ladies to reflect the three theological virtues (Faith, Hope, Charity) and four cardinal virtues (Prudence, Temperance, Fortitude and Justice), as depicted in Canto XXIX of Purgatorio.

Il Filocolo, Giovanni Boccaccio. This earlier work is retold by Emilia as the story of Madonna Dianor and Messer Ansaldo (X.5). FWIW, Chaucer later uses this tale as the basis for his "Franklin's Tale."

Il Filostrato, Giovanni Boccaccio. The story of Troilus and Cressida provides Boccaccio with the name for his lovelorn character in The Decameron (Filostrato, "one prostrated by love"). In a moment of nifty intertextuality, we understand that Filomena may be the lover who has disappointed Filostrato, because Il Filostrato was dedicated to a woman also named Filomena.

The Aeneid, Virgil. Elissa is the original Phoenician name of Dido, Queen of Carthage, who falls hard for Aeneas after being shot with an arrow by his half-brother, Cupid. He loves her back, but has to be on his way to found the city of Rome. Dido/Elissa is not a happy camper; she decides she can't live without him. Fortunately, our Elissa survives her encounter with lost love.

Historical References

Boniface VIII (I.1 and X.2, the tale of Ghino di Tacco, a highwayman who is accepted back into the good graces of the Pope). Boniface reigned as pope from 1294-1303 and found himself in a heap of controversy during that time. For our purposes, it's good to know that he was a patron of the painter Giotto and that he ultimately caused Dante's exile from Florence when he invited Charles of Valois to intervene in the conflict between the White and Black Guelphs (this isn't a race issue; the whites or "bianchi" were called after a leading family name and the blacks or "neri" chose the opposing color). In retaliation, Dante puts Boniface into the eighth circle of Hell in his Inferno, and Boccaccio comically makes him hand over land to a highwayman in X.2 of The Decameron.

Cangrande della Scala (I.7, Bergamino and Cangrande). Cangrande and his family (Ghibellines—supported the authority of the Holy Roman Emperor) led Veronese politics in the early 14th century. He was known for the friendship and hospitality that he showed to Dante Alighieri when he was exiled from Florence. In The Decameron, Cangrande suffers from a rare attack of stinginess and has to be reminded by Bergamino's story that being tight-fisted makes him unattractive. Cangrande rises to the occasion and richly rewards Bergamino for teaching him a lesson.

Cecco Angiolieri (1260-1312), (IX.4, The Two Ceccos). Cecco hailed from a wealthy banking family and was a satiric poet of some renown, but ironically had problems with money most of his life. In the story of the two Ceccos, Angiolieri isn't a poet, but a young man trying to get away from his hateful father. Another Cecco, his "friend," follows him on his journey, robs him blind and forces him to crawl back to his father for help.

Charles I of Anjou, King of Naples and Sicily (1226-1285), (X.6, King Charles I and Messer Neri). Charles was the younger brother of King Louis IX of France and was hugely influential in European politics. He supported the Guelphs in Italy and took the reign of the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily with the help of the popes. He's depicted in X.6 of The Decameron as a powerful old king who forgets his duty as a ruler and plans to abduct the beautiful young daughters of Messer Neri. He has to be talked out of it by the loyal Count Guy.

Currado II Malaspina (d. 1294), (II.6, Madonna Beritola). Currado's part of the wealthy and eminent Malaspina family of Northern Italy. Dante places him in the Valley of the Princes in Purgatorio and has nothing but good things to say about his family's kindness and civility. Boccaccio follows this model in his story of Madonna Beritola's extraordinary misfortunes, but has Currado fly off the handle when he thinks his daughter's honor has been insulted by Giannotto di Procida.

Frederick III of Aragon, King of Sicily (1273-1337), (II.5, Andreuccio and V.6, Gianni di Procida). Frederick's the third son of Peter III of Aragon who, after much dynastic wrangling and years of war, wins the mainland holdings of the kingdom of Sicily. This political drama forms the backdrop of the story of Andreuccio. In V.6, Ruggieri di Lauria has to remind Frederick that whatever support he has in Naples comes from Gianni's and Restituta's families so he probably shouldn't kill the lovers.

Forese da Rabatta (second half of 13th century), (VI.5, Messer Forese and Master Giotto). Forese was a famous jurist, a professor of law at the University of Pisa and a political figure in Florence. In The Decameron, the two highly accomplished men look like ugly beggars—but neither man seems to notice until they tell each other the truth.

Cino da Pistoia (c.1270-c.1336), (IV.Introduction). Cino's real name was Guittoncino dei Sigisbuldi (wouldn't you prefer Cino, too?). Despite the name, Cino was a brilliant jurist and poet who lived in Naples at the time when Boccaccio was still in school. It's possible that Cino taught Boccaccio, but we're not sure. In any case, Cino was friends with both Dante and Petrarch, so it seems natural that Boccaccio might know him. In the introduction to Day Four, Boccaccio calls on the examples of both Cino and Dante to defend himself against critics who believed he shouldn't be loving on the ladies in his old age.

Gianni da Procida or Giovanni di Procida (1210-1298), (V.6). Governor of Procida, lover extraordinaire. He was also a trained medical doctor and professor of medicine, as well as personal physician to Frederick III (the guy who wanted to burn him at the stake in V.6) and to the future Pope Nicholas III. Gianni was kind of the CIA of 13th century Italy, working in a "diplomatic capacity" that some viewed as conspiratorial and destructive. He seems to have engineered the conditions that prompted the Sicilian Vespers, which became a large-scale war. But in story six of the fifth day of The Decameron, he's just a lover trying to recover his kidnapped beloved.

Giotto di Bondone (1266/7-1337), (VI.5, Messer Forese da Rabatta and Master Giotto). Giotto was an influential painter from Florence who's thought to have promoted a new style of painting that became widespread in the Renaissance. His frescoes on the life of the Virgin and the life of Christ in the Arena Chapel, Padua is considered his masterwork.

Giovannozzo di Perino (Calandrino) (1301-1318), Buonamico Buffalmacco (1315-1336), Bruno di Giovanni d'Oliveri (1301-1320), (VIII.3, VIII.6, IX.3 and IX.5). Florentine painters active in the first half of the 14th century. It's unclear if any work survives from Bruno or Calandrino, but it's believed that Buffalmacco is responsible for an important fresco group in the Camposanto (Pisa), which includes The Three Dead and Three Living, The Triumph of Death, The Last Judgment, Hell, and The Thebais. You can see it here and judge whether or not you think our prankster was a worthy artist.

Guido Cavalcanti (c. 1255-1300), (VI.9, Guido and his Detractors). A masterful poet of the dolce stil novo (sweet new style) school, he's best known for his poem "Donna me prega" ("A Lady Asks Me"). He was a best friend and professional colleague of Dante, and Dante dedicated his Vita nuova to him. Guido was involved in Florentine politics (a White Guelph, like Dante) and took part in some radical activities to eliminate the head of the Black Guelphs (the feeling was mutual). He was known as highly intellectual and witty but reclusive, hence the character depicted in VI.9. who turns the tables on the men who are teasing him for being so anti-social.

Peter III of Aragon, King of Naples and Sicily (1239-1285), (II.6, Madonna Beritola and X.7, King Peter and Lisa). Peter was King of Aragon but a claimant to the kingdom of Naples and Sicily through his marriage to Constance, daughter of Manfred. He was a hero of the Sicilian Vespers and was declared king when the dust settled. Both Dante and Boccaccio admire Peter's abilities as a ruler and his good character, which shines through in X.7 when he behaves very gallantly to a poor young girl who falls in love with him. He's also mentioned in II.6 by Currado Malaspina.

Ruggiero di Lauria (c.1250-1305), (V.6, Gianni da Procida). Ruggiero served as Grand Admiral to Peter III of Aragon and was a successful military leader. In V.6, we see him at the time when he's still supporting Frederick III, and he rescues Gianni and Restituta from certain death at the hands of the angry king.

Saladin (c. 1137-1193), (I.3, Melchisedek and the Three Rings and X.9, Saladin and Messer Torrello). Saladin was a Muslim warrior and first Sultan of Egypt who quickly became the stuff of legend and folklore. He clashed with armies of the Third Crusade and utterly crushed them, securing the Kingdom of Jerusalem from European control. Despite being a terror to the West, Saladin's often portrayed in a positive light by European writers. He was admired for his military prowess and, as we see in X.9, is depicted as a deeply generous, intelligent and warm individual. The scholars at The Decameron Web tell us that Boccaccio draws on the character sketch of Saladin in Il Novellino, the Tuscan collection of short stories written shortly before Boccaccio began The Decameron. We can see these qualities in abundance in the story of the friendship between Torello and Saladin.